Mohorovičić Discontinuity...in detail !!

What is the Mohorovičić Discontinuity?

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity, or "Moho", is the boundary between the crust and the mantle. 



In geology the word "discontinuity" is used for a surface at which seismic waves change velocity. One of these surfaces exists at an average depth of 8 kilometers beneath the ocean basin and at an average depth of about 32 kilometers beneath the continents. At this discontinuity, seismic waves accelerate. This surface is known as the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or often simply referred to as the "Moho".

How Was the Moho Discovered?

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity was discovered in 1909 by Andrija Mohorovicic , a Croatian seismologist. Mohorovicic realized that the velocity of a seismic wave is related to the density of the material that it is moving through. He interpreted the acceleration of seismic waves observed within Earth's outer shell as a compositional change within the earth. The acceleration must be caused by a higher density material being present at depth.

The lower density material immediately beneath the surface is now commonly referred to as "Earth's crust". The higher density below the crust became known as "Earth's mantle". Through careful density calculations Mohorovicic determined that the basaltic oceanic crust and the granitic continental crust are underlain by a material which has a density similar to an olivine-rich rock such as peridotite.

How Deep is the Moho?

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity marks the lower limit of Earth's crust.

As stated above it occurs at an average depth of about 8 kilometers beneath the ocean basins and 32 kilometers beneath continental surfaces. 

Mohorovičić was able to use his discovery to study thickness variations of the crust. He discovered that the oceanic crust has a relatively uniform thickness while continental crust is thickest under mountain ranges and thinner under plains.

 

Has Anyone Ever Seen the Moho?

No one has ever been deep enough into the earth to see the Moho and no wells have ever been drilled deep enough to penetrate it. Drilling wells to that depth is very expensive and very difficult because of the extreme temperature and pressure conditions. The deepest well that has been drilled to date was located on the Kola Peninsula of the Soviet Union. It was drilled to a depth of about 12 kilometers. Drilling to the Moho through oceanic crust has also been unsuccessful.

OPERATION MOHOLE : To be started again

Drilling deep into the earth surface till Moho discontinuity i.e discontinuity between crust and mantle...
The deepest hole ever drilled, and the deepest artificial point on the earth is on KOLA peninsula,Russia(NEAR FINLAND) which is 12,262 metres (40,230 ft) and was drilled in 1989...

Discontinuities in the Earth’s structure

Discontinuity	Depth	Boundary	Other notes
Mohorovicic discontinuity	30-50 km (continents) 7 km (ocean floor)	crust-mantle	Observed by abrupt change in seismic wave velocity Identified by Andrija Mohorovicic (Croatia) in 1909
Gutenberg discontinuity	2900 km	Core-mantle	Observed by difference in seismic wave velocity The P waves make abrupt drop in velocity at the mantle-core boundary, whereas S wave terminates at the mantle-core boundary. Thus making a plane of discontinuous surface between the core and the mantle known as Gutenberg discontinuity.
Lehmann discontinuity	220 km		Appears beneath continents but not oceans

North Africa (Special)

 

 North Africa consists of five countries that border the Mediterranean Sea—EGYPT, LIBYA, TUNISIA, ALGERIA, and MOROCCO.

The SAHARA DESERT, the dominant feature of the North African landscape, sweeps across the southern part of the region.The Sahara serves as a geographical boundary between North Africa and sub-Saharan* Africa, except in Egypt. It also marks a transition zone from the largely Arab population of North Africa to black Africa of the south.   The Land. North Africa has three main geographic features: the Sahara, the ATLASOUNTAINS in the west, and the NILE RIVER ANd DELTA in the east. The Atlas Mountains—a complex cluster of ranges, ridges, plateaus, and basins—stretch for 1,200 miles along the North African coast from southwestern Morocco across Algeria to northeastern Tunisia. The tallest peaks are in the High Atlas range in south-central Morocco, which has many snowcapped peaks. South of the Atlas Mountains is the dry and largely barren expanse of the Sahara. In places the desert is cut by irregular watercourses called wadis—streams that flow only after rainfalls but are usually dry. The Sahara's major landforms include ergs, large seas of sand that sometimes form into huge dunes; the hammada, a level rocky plateau without soil or sand; and the reg, a level plain of gravel or small stones. The Sahara covers the southern part of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, and most of Libya. Only two regions of Libya are outside the desert: Tripolitania in the northwest and Cyrenaica in the northeast. Most of Egypt is also desert, except for the Nile River and the irrigated land along its banks. The Nile Valley is a narrow green and fertile thread that runs the length of the country. The Egyptian desert also contains oases, fertile areas around natural water sources. Oases are scattered through other parts of the desert as well. Climate, Water, and Resources. Coastal North Africa has a Mediterranean climate, with hot summers and mild, damp winters. Along the Atlas chain, the mountains trap moisture-laden clouds blowing south from the Mediterranean Sea. The moisture falls as rain on the mountains' northern slopes. As a result, these slopes and the coastal area between them and the sea are well-watered and fertile, compared with the more arid conditions on the southern side of the mountains. Similar conditions exist in Libya, where cliffs and low mountains separate Tripolitania and Cyrenaica from the desert interior. Throughout North Africa, the availability of water has always been the chief factor in determining where and how people live. In Egypt, 95 percent of the people live within a short distance of the Nile River or in the delta at its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea. Water from the river is used to irrigate fields of cereal grains, vegetables, cotton, and other crops. In the other North African countries, about 90 percent of the people live within 200 miles of the coast, generally in valleys that have streams and rivers. These areas are suitable for agriculture, especially with the aid of irrigation. Citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are major crops. Farther south, drier hills and grasslands bordering the desert have long been the home of pastoralists* who raise herds of sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. The only farming in the desert takes place in oases, where the main crops raised are date palms, fruit, and cereal grains. North Africa possesses valuable mineral resources. Libya and Algeria have extensive deposits of petroleum and natural gas. Industrial development of these resources has been underway since the 1950s, and fuel exports are a major source of revenue for these countries. Egypt and Tunisia have oil industries as well, though on a smaller scale. The region also contains small quantities of other minerals, such as copper, zinc, and manganese. Morocco and Tunisia have fairly significant deposits of phosphates, while iron ore is found in Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia. The People. North Africa's geographical setting has determined its population and its place in world affairs. In some ways, North Africa is closer to Europe and the Middle East than to the rest of Africa. The northernmost point in Morocco lies only eight miles from Europe across the Strait of Gibraltar. The Tunisian coast is just 85 miles from the Italian island of Sicily. North Africa has had extensive contact with Europe over the centuries, and in ancient times it was part of the Roman Empire. Moreover, the Sinai Peninsula, the northeastern part of Egypt, borders the Middle East. Contacts between the Middle East and North Africa also go back many centuries. The population of North Africa is mainly white, like the peoples of Europe and the Middle East. But racial mixing has occurred over the years between the people of North Africa and the black population of sub-Saharan Africa. North Africa shares the Middle East's dominant ethnic group (Arab), language (Arabic), and religion (Islam*). For this reason North Africa is sometimes considered part of the Middle East, at least culturally. Arabs have long used the term MAGHREB (or Maghrib), meaning "west," to refer to Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, which they consider the westernmost part of the Arab world. The most significant feature of North Africa's population is that it is more uniform than the population of any other African region. Although minority populations exist in all five nations, most North Africans are either Arabs, BERBERS, or a mixture of the two groups. The Berbers were the original inhabitants of North Africa. Between the A. D. 600s and 1000s, Muslim Arabs from Arabia swept across the region in a wave of conquest. The two peoples, physically quite similar, formed a single population in many areas as Berbers merged into Arab society. The Arabs brought with them to North Africa the Arabic language and the Islamic religion. Both the language and the faith, along with many other features of Arab culture, became dominant across North Africa. Some Berber groups, however, have maintained their separate identity. These groups generally live in the more isolated or remote mountain and desert areas of Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. Although Muslims, the Berbers often continue to speak their own languages and follow their traditional pastoralist, and sometimes nomadic* or seminomadic, way of life. One Berber-speaking group—the TUAREG—live primarily in the desert regions of North Africa and cling strongly to their traditional lifestyle. Despite such differences, however, centuries of interaction between the Berbers and Arabs has created a strong sense of cultural unity. The people of North Africa are overwhelmingly Muslim. Egypt has a small but significant group of Coptic Christians, followers of an early form of Christianity. Jewish communities have existed in North Africa since ancient times. In recent years, however, they have almost disappeared as North Africa's Jews have emigrated to Israel or Europe. North Africa's population numbered approximately 144 million in 2000. The country with the largest population was Egypt, with more than 68 million inhabitants. Algeria had 31 million people, Morocco 30 million, and Tunisia nearly 10 million. Libya's population numbered only 5 million. Arabic is the official language of all five countries, but many North Africans also speak other languages. French is often used in business in the former French colonies of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Many Libyans, especially in the cities, understand English and Italian, and many urban Egyptians speak English. Berber is most often heard in Morocco and Algeria, which have large Berber populations. North Africa has had cities since ancient times, when ALEXANDRIA in Egypt and CARTHAGE in Tunisia were major Mediterranean ports. CAIRO in Egypt and Fez in Morocco flourished as centers of the caravan trade during the Middle Ages. More recently, trade and industrial development have stimulated the growth of several port cities in North Africa. Major urban centers now include Alexandria, Cairo, Tripoli in Libya, Tunis, ALGIERS in Algeria, and Casablanca in Morocco. African Apes in Europe North Africa's native monkey is a tailless, ground-dwelling member of the macaque family that lives in Algeria and Morocco. It is called the Barbary ape—although it is a monkey, not a true ape—because North Africa was formerly known as the Barbary coast. Barbary apes also live in Gibraltar, a British-controlled peninsula in southern Spain. They are Europe's only wild monkeys, possibly carried to the continent by the Moors, Arabs from North Africa who invaded Spain in the Middle Ages.

Summary --.

North Africa reflects the influence of many invaders, both European and Arab, giving the region Islamic flavor and a common Arabic language.

Morocco and Tunisia exploit their culture and landscape for tourism, while Libya and Algeria aid their development through the use of oil and gas, despite political unrest. Egypt, with its Nile-watered agricultural land and industrial base, is the most populous nation.

The Atlas Mountains run from Morocco to Tunisia more than 1,200 miles (1,931 km).

 

Some local winds in North Africa

Khamsin : southeasterly from north Africa to the eastern Mediterranean  

Sirocco : southerly from north Africa to southern Europe  

Indian Coal Energy

Nearly 63 percent of the India’s total energy requirements are met from coal. The available coal reserves in India are sufficient to meet our needs for at least another 100 years. India now ranks 3rd amongst the coal producing countries in the world.
 
Taking the above facts into consideration it is obvious that coal is one of the potential energy substitutes in India.
This section provides status and trends on Indian coal energy

Reserves

COAL RESERVES IN INDIA (As on 1.1.2007) (in billion tonnes)
TYPE	TOTAL RESERVE	PROVED RESERVE	INDICATED RESERVE	INFERRED RESERVE
COKING	32	17	13	2
NON-COKING	255	98	119	36
TOTAL	287	115	132	40

Major Coal Based Thermal Projects 

Plant	Location	Capacity (MW)
Talcher	ORISSA	3000
Vindhyachal	MADHYA PRADESH	2760
Ramagundam	ANDHRA PRADESH	2600
Korba	CHHATISGARH	2100
Singrauli	UTTAR PRADESH	2000
Rihand	UTTAR PRADESH	2000
Farakka	WEST BENGAL	1600
Wanakbori TPS	GUJARAT	1260
Kolaghat Thermal Power Station (U 1-6)	WEST BENGAL	1260
FGUTPS-Unchahar	UTTAR PRADESH	1050
Simhadri	ANDHRA PRADESH	1000
Anpara B	UTTAR PRADESH	1000
Obra B	UTTAR PRADESH	1000
Mejia Thermal Power Station	WEST BENGAL	840
NCTPS-Dadri	UTTAR PRADESH	840
Kahalgaon	BIHAR	840
Korba-West	CHHATTISGARH	840
Sanjay Gandhi TPH Birsinghpur (PH I & II)	MADHYA PRADESH	840
Patratu T. P. S	JHARKHAND	770
Chandrapura Thermal Power Station	JHARKHAND	750
Renusagar Power Division (Captive Power Plant)	UTTAR PRADESH	741.7
Badarpur	DELHI	705
Durgapur Projects Power Station	WEST BENGAL	701
Gandhinagar TPS (Unit-1-4)	GUJARAT	660
Bokaro Thermal Power Station	JHARKHAND	630

Short tons of coal consumed per country per year

Country	Coal consumption *
India	339,000,000
US	1,060,000,000
UK	66,100,000
France	20,890,000
Italy	22,400,000
Canada	67,000,000
China	1,310,000,000
Japan	149,500,000.

Wetlands in India

Definition of Wetlands ..

Wetlands are the ecotones or transitional zones between permanently aquatic and dry terrestrial ecosystems. Ramsar Convention has defined wetlands as "areas of marsh, fen , peatland or water, whether natural or artifical, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low t ide does not exceed six meters". A wides variet y of wetlands like marshes, swamps, open wat er bodies, mangroves and tidal flats and salt marshes etc. exists in our country.

Sr. No.	Name of Wetland	Date of declaration	State
1	Ashtamudi Wetland	19/08/02	Kerala
2	Bhitarkanika Mangroves	19/08/02	Orissa
3	Bhoj Wetland	19/08/02	Madhya Pradesh
4	Chandertal Wetland	08/11/05	Himachal Pradesh
5	Chilika Lake	01/10/81	Orissa
6	Deepor Beel	19/08/02	Assam
7	East Calcutta Wetlands	19/08/02	West Bengal
8	Harike Lake	23/03/90	Punjab
9	Hokera Wetland	08/11/05	Jammu and Kashmir
10	Kanjli	22/01/02	Punjab
11	Keoladeo National Park MR	01/10/81	Rajasthan
12	Kolleru Lake	19/08/02	Andhra Pradesh
13	Loktak Lake MR	23/03/90	Manipur
14	Point Calimere	19/08/02	Tamil Nadu
15	Pong Dam Lake	19/08/02	Himachal Pradesh
16	Renuka Wetland	08/11/05	Himachal Pradesh
17	Ropar	22/01/02	Punjab
18	Rudrasagar Lake	08/11/05	Tripura
19	Sambhar Lake	23/03/90	Rajasthan
20	Sasthamkotta Lake	19/08/02	Kerala
21	Surinsar-Mansar Lakes	08/11/05	Jammu and Kashmir
22	Tsomoriri	19/08/02	Jammu and Kashmir
23	Vembanad-Kol Wetland	19/08/02	Kerala
24	Wular Lake	23/03/90	Jammu and Kashmir
25	Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)	08/11/05	Uttar Pradesh

Wetlands Classification Scheme

Inland Wetlands
1. Natural	Lakes/Ponds Ox-bow lakes/ Cut-off meanders Waterlogged (Seasonal) Playas Swamp/marsh
2. Man-made	Reservoirs Tanks Waterlogged Abandoned quarries Ash pond/cooling pond
Coastal Wetlands
1. Natural	Estuary Lagoon Creek Backwater (Kayal) Bay Tidal flat/Split/Bar Coral reef Rocky coast Mangroove forest Salt marsh/marsh vegetation Other vegetation
2. Man-made	Salt pans Aquaculture

The Ramsar Convention The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem. The treaty was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and the Convention's member countries cover all geographic regions of the planet.

Why save Wetlands ?

Wetlands are integral to a healthy environment. They help to retain water during dry periods, thus keeping the water table high and relatively stable. During periods of flooding, they act to reduce flood levels and to trap suspended solids and nutrients to the lakes than if they flow directly into the lakes. The removal of such wetland systems because of urbanization or other factors typically causes lake water quality to worsen. In addition, wetlands are important feeding, breeding, and drinking areas for wildlife and provide a stopping place and refuge for waterfowl. As with any natural habitat, wetlands are important in supporting species diversity and have a complex and important food web. The recent millenium assessment of ecosystems puts freshwater biodiversity as the most threatened of all types of biodiversity.

How are they threatened..?

These wetland values are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pressures. The rapidly expanding human population, large scale changes in land use/landcover and burgeoning development projects and improper use of watersheds have all caused a substantial decline of wetland resources of the country. Absence of reliable and updated information and data on extent of wetlands, their conservation values and socioeconomic importance has greatly hampered development of policy, legislation and administrative interventions by the state.

Why do we need to map wetlands...?

For the long-term conservation planning of wetlands, spatial data and information is required for any intervention. Wetland eco-system constitute an integral part of cultural and biodiversity landscape of India. It is estimated that 3.5 millions ha exists in the country according to the 1992-1993 study by the Space Application Centre. However, this information pertains to wetlands above 56ha in size. Past research on wetland conservation in the country has shown conclusively that micro wetlands or satellite wetlands around a bigger wetland act as a constellation of habitat mosaic for resident and migratory waterfowl. This is of special importance for inland wetland habitats in the flyways of migratory birds in the Indo-Gangetic plains and in Deccan peninsula. Often, the size of these micro wetlands is much smaller than 50ha Therefore, there is a great need to map wetlands of size smaller than 50ha. Spatial information on wetlands resources is a critical and an urgently needed for an effective conservation of these important eco-system.

Use of advanced spatial technology tools

For a country like India, with its vast biological and cultural diversity, a comprehensive use of remote sensing, GIS and other related technologies will be of great use in conservation. Classifying and mapping wetlands based on geomorphology, water quality and other biological attribute can lead to qualitative assessment. Results obtained could be used in planning, inventorying and monitoring wetlands in the country.

What is World Wetlands Day?  2 February each year is World Wetlands Day. It marks the date of the signing of the Convention on Wetlands on 2 February 1971, in the Iranian city of Ramsar on the shores of the Caspian Sea. 

Water Resources in India

India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one of them. Its development and management plays a vital role in agriculture production. Integrated water management is vital for poverty reduction, environmental sustenance and sustainable economic development. National Water Policy (2002) envisages that the water resources of the country should be developed and managed in an integrated manner.

Water is food and fire is the eater of the food.
Fire is established in water and
Water is established in fire

-Taittiriya Upanishad 3.8

	General Facts

World oceans cover about three fourth of earth’s surface. According to the UN estimates, the total amount of water on earth is about 1400 million cubic kilometre  which is enough to cover the earth with a layer of 3000 metres depth. 

 However the fresh water constitutes a very small proportion of this enormous quantity. About 2.7 per cent of the total water available on the earth is fresh water of which about 75.2 per cent lies frozen in polar regions and another 22.6 per cent is present as ground water. The rest is available in lakes, rivers, atmosphere, moisture, soil and vegetation. What is effectively available for consumption and other uses is a small proportion of the quantity available in rivers, lakes and ground water. The crisis about water resources development and management thus arises because most of the water is not available for use and secondly it is characterized by its highly uneven spatial distribution. Accordingly, the importance of water has been recognised and greater emphasis is being laid on its economic use and better management.

Water on the earth is in motion through the hydrological cycle. The utilisation of water for most of the users i.e. human, animal or plant involve movement of water. The dynamic and renewable nature of the water resources and the recurrent need for its utilisation requires that water resources are measured in terms of its flow rates. Thus water resources have two facets. The dynamic resource, measured as flow is more relevant for most of developmental needs. The static or fixed nature of the reserve, involving the quantity of water, the length of area of the water bodies is also relevant for some activities like pisciculture, navigation etc. Both these aspects are discussed below.

Irrigation World

Analysing the country-wise geographical area, arable land and irrigated area in the World, it is found that among the continents largest geographical area lies in the Africa which is about 23 per cent of the world geographic area. However, Asia (excluding erstwhile countries of USSR) with only 21 per cent of world geographical area has about 32 per cent of world’s arable land followed by North Central America having about 20 per cent of World’s arable land. Africa has only 12 per cent of world’s arable land. It has been seen that irrigated area in the World as about 18.5 per cent of the arable land in 1994. In 1989, 63 per cent of world’s irrigated area was in Asia, whereas in 1994 this percentage has gone upto 64 per cent. Also 37 per cent of arable land of Asia was irrigated in 1994. 


Among Asian countries, India has the largest arable land, which is close to 39 per cent of Asia’s arable land. Only United States of America has more arable land than India.

	Ground Water Exploration

Ground water exploration aided by drilling is one of the major activities of the Board with an objective to discover aquifers in different hydrogeological conditions and determination of hydraulic parameters. Large-scale sub-surface exploration programme for ground water was initiated during 1954. In the initial years, exploratory drilling activities were confined to alluvial tracts in major river basins and sub mountainous bouldary tracts of Himalayan foothills. In mid eighties, CGWB added 26 new DTH drilling rigs in its fleet with which the exploratory drilling in hard rock regions gained momentum. The major thrust of exploratory drilling programme in nineties was in areas underlain by hard rock. Another important development in first half of nineties was introduction of open hole drilling technology in India. CGWB acquired seven percussion drilling rigs for exploratory drilling in bouldary/ semi-consolidated formations in Himalyan foothills from Jammu & Kashmir in  north west to Arunachal Pradesh in north east. These exploration programmes formed the background of scientific evaluation of the water bearing properties of various rock formations.  More than 27,500 wells have been drilled by Central Ground Water Board throughout the country. High yielding wells were drilled under ground water exploration programme in water deficient areas in the country, including  tribal and drought prone areas. Most of these high yielding wells have been handed over to the respective State Governments for public water supply. Board had also come forward in disaster mitigation activities during Latur earthquake during 1993, Bhuj earthquake during 2001, Super cyclone in Orissa during 2000 and Tsunami hit coastal belt of Tamil Nadu & Kerala and Andaman & Nicobar Islands during 2004 by way of construction of tube wells for water supply.   Water Bodies Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks & ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M.Ha. Of the fivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum area (2.9 M.Ha.) followed by reservoirs (2.1 M.Ha.). Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62 percent of total area under tanks and ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasman and Uttar Pradesh account for larger portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels, oxbow, lakes and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam. Orissa ranks first as regards the total area of brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal. The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the country's inland water bodies.  Water in Indian Constitution India is union of States. The constitutional provisions in respect of allocation of responsibilities between the State and Centre fall into three categories: The Union List (List-I), the State List (List-II) and the Concurrent List (List-III). Article 246 of the Constitution deals with subject matter of laws to be made by the Parliament and by Legislature of the States. As most of the rivers in the country are inter-State, the regulation and development of waters of these rivers, is a source of inter-State differences and disputes. In the Constitution, water is a matter included in Entry 17 of List-II i.e. State List. This entry is subject to the provision of Entry 56 of List-I i.e. Union List.

MINERALS

METALLIC MINERALS: FERROUS GROUP : IRON ORE
IRON ORE: One of the most widely distributed elements of earth’s crust, iron rarely occurs in free state. Like several other metals, iron ore deposits are associated mainly with igneous intrusions. Good quality iron ore is found in Russia, Ukraine, China, and the USA etc. Russia has the largest proven reserves of iron ore in the world. In 1999, China emerged as the biggest producer of iron ore in the world, followed by Brazil, Australia, India and Russia. Magnetite, haemitite, limonite and siderite are the common types of iron ore.
Mineral	Features		Distribution in India	Distribution in World
1.MAGNETITE	Magnetite with nearly 70 per cent iron content is the finest iron ore. Magnetite ore deposits are in igneous or metamorphic rocks. The banded type is considered to be the most important due to extensive occurrence, easy amenability to beneficiation by crushing and magnetic separation and agglomeration. Its color ranges from dark brown to black.		In India, magnetite deposits occur in Dharwar and Cuddapah systems of rock in the peninsula, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. Kerala.	Sweden, Russia and Liberia
Karnataka Kudremukh, Hariyur, Kunigal, Siddarhali, Shankarguddu, Ubrani etc. Andhra Pradesh Chityal, Daturabad, Kalleda, Rabanpalli, Singreni, Gopalpur, Utla etc Tamil Nadu Chettari,Belukkurrichi, Namagiri, Panchalais, Sittinglinge, Kanjamahal, Tirthamahal amd Mahadev Hills, in the Salem district, Kelur, Malnad and Devala and Nilgiri district Kerala Mostly in the Kozhikode district and in Cherupa, Eliyettimala, Nauminda, Naduvallur and Allampara
Minerals	Features	Distribution in India		Distribution in World
2. HAEMETITE	Haemetite Iron ore contains 65 per cent iron. It is hard, bumpy, compact and reddish in color. Haemetite ores contribute to more than three-fourths of india’s total production of Iron ores. They mostly occur as laminated hematite, micaceous haemitite, and heamatite breecia and heamatite quartz schist.	They are found in the Dharwar and Cuddapah systems of rock in the peninsular Deccan.		Lake Superior ( USA), Qebec( Canada), Brazil, Russia, Liberia, China and Spain
Jharkhand and Orissa Gurumahisani- Badampahar belt and Barajamada group which include Barbil, Gua, Bonai, Joda, Kiriburu, Suleipat, Gorumahisini, Noamundi, Barajamda etc. Barajamda group. This covers part of Singhbhum district in Jharkhand and contains the largest ore reserves in the country. Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh Bailadila Raughat and Aridongri group in Bastar district; Dalli-Rajhara group in the Durg district; and the deposits in Jabalpur district. Maharashtra Lohara, Pipalgaon, Asola and Surajgarh( in Chandraprabha district ) Karnataka Chikmaglur, Sandur, Bellary, Hospet, shimoga and Chitradurga districts Goa Bicholim-Sirigao deposits, Gudbem-Dignem –Surle deposits, Velgnem- Pale deposits and Arwalem deposits Andhra Pradesh Anantpur, Khamman, Krishna Kurnool, Cuddapah and Nellore districts where the main producing centers are Jaggayapeta, Ramallakota, Velduti, Nayudupetta & Bayyaram.
Minerals	Feature	Distribution in India			Distribution in world
3.LIMONITE	Brown ore occurring in sedimentary formations. Its iron content is lea than 50 per cent and it has many impurities.	Garhwal( Uttaranchal),Mirzapur district (U.P), Kangra Valley (Himachal Pradesh			Alabama( USA)
Minerals	Feature	Distribution in India			Distribution in world
4. SIDERITE	Siderite is carbonate of iron & is found near coal fields. It is also a residual ore and has an iron content of 20 to 30 per cent.	Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh			England(Lincolnshire),France and Luxemburg
METALLIC MINERALS: FERROUS GROUP : MANGANESE ORE
MANGANESE ORE: in terms of the Manganiferrous ores with regard to the proportion of manganese to iron, it is customary to use the term manganese ore for those containing over 40 per cent of manganese. Manganese is used as Ferro ally; it removes gases and acts as cleanser in the manufacture of steel. Manganese is also used as a decloriser in glass, and in the manufacture of bleaching powder and electric batteries. Distribution in the World: Former USSR, south Africa, Gabon, Australia, Brazil, France and India are major producing centers. Distribution in India : o India is the third largest producer of manganese ore in the world. o The country’s most important ore deposits occur in the form of sedimentary stratified metamorphic deposits in the Dharwar system. The manganese deposits are generally either syngenetic (sedimentary) as in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, epigenetic (residual enrichment and oxidation) as Jharkhand, Orissa, Goa and Karnataka, or lateritic and supergene enrichments associated with the first two groups. o On the basis of the mode of occurrence and association with different kinds of country rocks, the Indian manganese ore deposits have been classified as Ø Gonditic ores which are associated with metamorphosed manganiferous sediments Ø Koduritic ores which are produced due to reactions between the country rocks and invading magma or granitic composition Ø Lateritoid ores which are produced due to metasomatic replacement and residual concentration In India, extensive and rich manganese deposits occur in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Indian manganese deposits display some distinct geological formation, which are a) Deposits associated with Khondalite rocks (garnet, sillimanite, gneisses) found in the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh and in the Kalahandi and Koraput districts in Orissa. b) Deposits associated with the iron ore bearing rocks (schists) found in Karnataka state in the Sandur hills as the Bisgold- Yellapur deposits in North Kanara, and in the Chitradurga and shimoga belt, and the Supa-Dandeli area of North Kanara; c) Deposits associated with limestone and dolomite which occur in the Sausar-Manganese- Marble province of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Gangapur (Orissa), Ratnagiri in Maharashtra and Panch Mahal and Vadodara districts of Gujarat.
METALLIC MINERALS: FERROUS GROUP : CHROMITE ORE
Chromite is the only ore mineral of chromium and is an important alloying element in the manufacture of steel. Chromite is an oxide of iron and chromium with a theoretical composition of 32 per cent and 68 per cent. Alumina, iron oxide, magnesium oxide, lime and silica may reduce content. Distribution in the World: the world’s leading producer of Chromite is south Africa, Zimbabwe, Russia and Kazakhstan. Distribution in India : Major deposits of Chromite in India are as follows: Karnataka Nuggchalli belt which includes Byrapur, Chikonhalli, Pensamudra, Bhaktarahalli in Hassan district Maharashtra Kankauli and Vagda areas in Ratnagiri district Orissa Sukinda ultra basic belt of Cuttack, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar districts ( the state is considered to have the largest Chromite deposit in the country) Jharkhand Hills of Rorburu, Kiriburu and Chittangburu in Singhbhum district Tamil Nadu Sittampudi in Salem district
METALLIC MINERALS: FERROUS GROUP : NICKEL
The main ore is pentlaudite, a complex mixture of nickel, iron and sulphur. Nickel is also often found in association with copper. It is used for plating iron, so it can be used in metal pars located near compasses. Canada produces the largest amount of world’s nickel. Russia and Australia have large resources.
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP :GOLD
GOLD: Economic Uses: 1. Gold is a precious metal and till very recently constituted the international standard of exchange. 2. In alloy state with other metals, it is metals used in ornamentation. 3. The industrial uses of gold alloys are in dentistry and in chemical plants, thermo-couples, watches, X-rays equipment, photography and some medicines. Distribution in the World: the greatest producer is south Africa with major mines in the Witwatersrand, Odendaalrus and Lydenburg. Canada, Japan, the USA, Zimbabwe and Ghana also produce gold. Distribution in India: Kolar Field: the Kolar Field in Karnataka has been the principal source of gold production in India since 1871 when mining first started. It has four productive mines – Nandydroog, Champion Reef (deepest mine in the world), Mysore and Ooregaum. The Dharwar schist on which Kolar gold fields are situated run in a north-south direction for 80 km . However, the quartz veins bearing gold are confined to only 6-7 km section near Marikuppan. The mineralizing solutions responsible for the development of the auriferous veins of South India were probably derived from the magma which gave rise to champion gneisses. The Kolar field mined by the Bharat Gold Mines Ltd has always had the highest output in India, but it now faces closure. Bharat Gold Mines Ltd BGML is a PSU under the administrative control of the Ministry of Mines and is now closed. It was set up in 1972 to operate the Kolar Gold Mines taken over by the central government from the government of Mysore. It was primarily engaged in gold mining from its captive mines in the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) located mainly in Karnataka but partly also in Andhra Pradesh. Towards its last years the Company also undertook mine development, shaft sinking, manufacture of mining machinery and other fabricated items for outside clients for which it set up a Mine Construction and Engineering Division. Until the time of its closure BGML was the only world class gold mining operation in India. The only other gold mine in the country, viz. the Hutti Gold Mine owned by the Karnataka government, is a miniscule operation and is not recognized as a proper gold mine by world standards. During its heyday BGML's Kolar Gold Mines added to the glory of India as one of the great gold mining operations of the world and Kolar was known as the largest gold production centre in Asia. The Kolar Gold Mines of BGML were closed down in the year 2001 as the gold ore reserves got exhausted after 150 years of continuous and heavy extraction. Both the exploration agencies of government viz. the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and the Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited (MECL) declared that mining the meager remaining reserves was not a technically or economically viable option. At the time of its closure BGML had run up losses of more than Rs.900 crore. In the Raichur district, the auriferous veins occur within the Schistose rocks of Dharwarian age. There are six auriferous quartz reefs of which the Oakley reef is the main producer. It is worked by Hutti Gold Mines Company of Karnataka state. According to the Geological Survey of India, the reserves in both these fields are estimated at about 4.5 million tonnes with a total gold content of about 45000 kg. In addition ore reserves of about 60000 tonnes with 8.5 gm per tonnes have been indicated in Budini area. New fields have been found at Kempinkote (Hassan district), Honnali (Shimoga district), Siddarahalli (Chikmaglur district), Bellara (Chitaradurg district) and Munglur (Gulbarga district). In Andhra Pradesh the Ramgiri field of Anantapur district is main source of gold.
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP :SILVER
SILVER The ore minerals are stephanite, agentite, proustite and pyrargyrite. Silver is found in the galena ores that may have up to one per cent of this metallic mineral. Distribution in the World: Mexico is the chief producer of silver; other producers are Russia, Canada, Peru and Australia. Distribution in India: in India, the lead-zinc ores of Zawar in Rajasthan yield silver. Silver is derived as a byproduct in the Karnataka gold fields. The lead ores in Andhra Pradesh: Guntur, Cuddapah, Kurnool districts Jharkhand: Santhal Parganas, Singhbhum Bihar: Bhagalpur Gujarat: Vadodara district Karnataka: the district of Bellary Uttaranchal: Almora district Jammu & Kashmir : Baramulla district
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP :COPPER ORE
Economic Uses: the metal is of great industrial important due to its high electric conductivity, high ductility and malleability. Thus it is mostly used in electrical manufacturing. Besides, the copper alloys are used in buildings, automobiles, airplanes, naval ships, household utensils as well as in metallurgy and paints. However, in recent years, the increasing use of glass fibres has reduced the pressure on copper. Distribution in the World: the largest producers of copper ores are the USA, Russia , Chile, Zambia, Canada and Zaire. Chile is the largest producer. Distribution in India India is deficient in Copper ores and thus depends to a large extent on imports. Important Copper deposits in India are Rajasthan Khetri complex which includes the Khi-Dariba area in Alwar district and the Khetri-Singhana area in Jhunjhunu district (Khetri deposits is one of the important copper deposits in the country.) Jharkhand Singhbhum district Andhra Pradesh Bondalamottu, Nalankonda and dhukonda in the agnigundala belt of Guntur district; Ganikalava, Gumankonda and Somalapilli in Karnool district; and Garimanipenta in Nellore district.
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP :TIN
The main ore of tin is cassiterite or tinstone with about 75 per cent of tin. It occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Nearly 80 per cent of the world’s supplies come from alluvial deposits. Distribution in World India: Malaysia is the world’s leading producer and exporter of tin. Other producers are china, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Zaire, Bolivia and Australia. Distribution in the India: In India, Bihar, Jharkhand and Rajasthan are main producers of tin.
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP :LEAD &ZINC
The two metals, lead and zinc rarely occur in native state. They generally occur in combination with other elements. Galena is the chief ore of lead while sphalerite or zinc blende is the chief ore of zinc. Economic Uses: 1. Lead is used in the construction of accumulators, for lead piping and sheeting cable covers, as pigments in glass making and in medicine. 2. Zinc is used for coating, galvanizing iron and steel products, in the manufacture of pigments and alloys with other metals (like brass, bronze, german silver) and in the manufacture of batteries and electric appliances. Besides, it is widely used in textile industry, timber preservation, etc. Distribution in the World Major producers of lead are the USA, Russia, Australia, Canada, Peru and Bulgaria. Leading producers of zinc are Canada, Russia, Peru Australia & the USA. Distribution in India Rajasthan Here, lead and zinc are extracted from the Zawar mines in Udaipur district and from Anguncha- Rampura in Bhilwara district. In these mines, silver ore is also extracted. Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah district has the reserves Gujarat Here lead and zinc are extracted from Banaskantha, Vadodara, Panchmahal and Surat.
METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP : BAUXITE
Economic Uses: BAUXITE is used in the manufacture of alum, aluminous sulphates and other chemicals; the construction of airplanes, automobiles, electrical appliances, etc. and the manufacture of containers, utensils and machineries. Distribution in the World: Australia, guinea, Jamaica , brazil, Surinam Yugoslavia and the state of Arkansas in USA, china, Malaysia, Indonesia, turkey and India Distribution in India The Bauxite deposits are mainly spread over the Eastern Ghats. Madhya Pradesh Nearly 30% of country’s production of Bauxite comes from Madhya Pradesh. Bauxite deposits here are found in Amarkantak plateau in Shahdot district. Maikala hills and the plateau region of Sarguja-Bilaspur- Raigarh-Katni Bihar Occur in Ranchi and Palamau Karnataka Found in Belagaum Maharashtra Kolaba, Kolhapur and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra have copper reserves Tamil Nadu Found in salem,Nilgiri,Coimbatore &Madurai Uttar Pradesh Banda Jammu & Kashmir Here, high grade bauxite deposits are found in Poonch and Udhampur.
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NON-METALLIC MINERALS: MICA

Economic Uses: a) Mica is used as an insulating material in electrical industry. b) Muscovite (white-mica/potash mica), Phlogopite (amber mica/magnesium iron mica) splitting are used in making of build-up mica or micanite and other insulation products, for heat insulation and also electrical insulation. c) In powder form, it is used in lubricating oils and decorative wall papers. Distribution in the World: India is the most important mica producing country in the world and it supplies 80 per cent of the world requirements of block mica. Distribution in India: Mica is produced mainly in the three states of Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. Major producing regions include the following Jharkhand Here, mica is extracted from the Hazaribagh belt, with Koderma contributing a large part of the country’s total production. Rajasthan Here, mica is mined in the Beawar,Ajmer belt, Banswara-Dungarpur belt, Bhilwara , Tonk and Kaunthal in Udaipur. Andhra Pradesh Here, mica is extracted from Nellore in Gudur district.